Caring For Snakes:
One or more Duro-Test Vita-lites should be used to illuminate the enclosure
during daylight hours! Full spectrum lighting is best for all living things!
Ideally, it would be
advantageous for all captive reptiles to be housed in such a way that they could
be exposed to and benefit from direct, unfiltered sunlight during the daylight
hours every day.
Caring For Snakes:
This represents the healthiest and most natural situation. The next best
solution is to use an artificial ultraviolet light source rather than
fluorescent or incandescent lightbulbs.
Lighting
Ideally, it would be advantageous for all captive reptiles to be housed in such
a way that they could be exposed to and benefit from direct, unfiltered sunlight
during the daylight hours every day. This represents the healthiest and most
natural situation. Unfortunately, this set of circumstances can rarely be
fulfilled by hobbyists because it is neither practical or possible. The next
best solution is to use an artificial ultraviolet light source rather than
fluorescent or incandescent lightbulbs.
One or more Vita-lites (Duro-Lite Lamps, Duro-Test Corp, Lyndhurst, NJ 07071)
should be used to illuminate the enclosure during the light hours. To
approximate a natural photoperiod, it is best to supply 10-12 hours of daylight
and 12-14 hours of darkness each day, with a gradual increase in the number of
hours of light in the spring and a gradual decrease in the fall and winter
months.
Water
should be provided at all times. Most snakes drink infrequently but use a
suitably sized container for immersing themselves and soaking. Another advantage
for including a relatively large water container is that water evaporation
contributes to the relatively humidity of the enclosure. This is especially true
if the enclosure is glass or plexiglass lined. The water container should be
roomy enough to allow adequate soaking and heavy enough so it cannot be easily
overturned.
Water containers must be thoroughly and regularly cleaned. Failure to do so
encourages bacterial proliferation. Snakes drinking of and soaking in this water
soon become ill. Use Roccal-D (Winthrop Veterinary, NY, NY 10016) to disinfect
the snake's enclosure and furnishings at least once every 2 weeks.
Feeding
Before specific feeding recommendations are made, it is very important to make
several points and cautions regarding the feeding of captive snakes. The most
respected herpetologists and experienced snake hobbyists all agree that captive
snakes should be fed dead or incapacitated prey whenever possible. This is
because such prey cannot injure the feeding snake. Providing killed prey that
has been frozen is convenient and economical for the hobbyists. Snakes may be
induced to eat thawed, frozen prey animals by clipping hair from the coat of a
live rat and rolling the proposed food in it just before feeding.
Though freezing, thawing and subsequent feeding of whole prey animals is a
common practice among hobbyists and herpetologists, some experts believe that
such food sources should be "gutted" (eviscerated) before they are
frozen. This greatly reduces the possibility of generalized bacterial
contamination of the carcass. To replace those nutrients within the viscera that
would otherwise be lost, the hobbyist can place a gelatin capsule filled with a
vitamin/mineral/amino acid supplement (NektonRep: Nekton Products, W. Germany)
into the body cavity before feeding the thawed prey animal to the snake.
Rodents (rats and mice in particular) left unattended and unobserved within an
enclosure with a supposedly hungry snake sometimes turn on the "diner"
and inflict serious bite wounds on it. These "dinner becomes the
diner" incidents are most likely to occur when a snake is ill or otherwise
uninterested in feeding.
If snakes do not accept freshly killed or well thawed frozen prey, the live prey
must be stunned so that it is sufficiently incapacitated and unable to injure
the snake. Live rodents can be placed in a paper bag, which is then swiftly
slammed down on a counter top to stun the rodent inside. If such an
incapacitated animal is offered to a snake that is generally accustomed to
receiving its food in this fashion and the snake refuses it, the prey animal can
be killed and frozen, and offered at a later time.
If it is not possible to offer anything other than live and fully conscious prey
for a snake to successfully feed, the encounter must be carefully supervised. If
a snake shows no interest in feeding within 10-15 minutes after the prey has
been introduced, the prey should be removed and all of the possible reasons for
the snake's lack of interest in feeding should be investigated. (See section on
Failure to Voluntarily Feed). If other similar attempts to feed the snake within
the next 1-2 weeks are equally unsuccessful, veterinary help should be sought at
once.
Snakes acquire a large number of infectious agents from the foods they consume,
especially because of the snake's habit of feeding on whole prey items. It is
not practical or possible to ensure that all prey animals are absolutely free of
disease-causing agents. However, prey animals that are to be fed to captive
snakes should appear healthy and come from a reliable source.
Extreme caution should be exercised when feeding snakes. This is especially
important if a given snake is expected to be hungry and if human-snake
interaction is limited to feeding times. An over zealous and hungry snake is
very likely to strike at a person immediately after the enclosure is opened and
as the prey item is introduced. Large snakes can be especially treacherous and
dangerous at these times because of their ability to overcome and overpower
their keepers. Hobbyists and even a few expert herpetologists have been
seriously injured or even killed at such times.
Great caution must also be exercised when feeding more than one snake within an
enclosure. Serious problems result when 2 snakes choose to prey on the same food
item. If one snake attaches to the front of a mouse and another attacks at the
tail end of the same mouse, neither snake will surrender its hold. Both snakes
will continue to feed and eventually one will consume the other! When 2 or more
snakes are housed within the same enclosure, they should be fed individually by
holding the prey animal in long forceps or tongs.
Captive snakes, as a group, usually do not suffer from major nutritional
deficiencies, unlike the majority of reptiles kept in captivity. This is largely
because pet snakes are allowed to feed as they do in the wild, on whole prey
items. The prey species fed to captive snakes are undoubtedly different from
those present in the snake's natural environment. Furthermore, the relatively
narrow diversity of prey animals that can be fed to captive snakes due to
practical and economic considerations is in contrast to the wide variety of prey
animals. potentially available to wild-living snakes. In spite of these mal or
differences, the incidence of malnutrition and malnutrition-related problems
among captive snakes is quite low, markedly contrasting the usual situation with
most captive reptiles and their seemingly limitless malnutrition-related disease
problems. The potential for malnutrition and malnutrition-related disease tends
to be greatest among juvenile snakes fed primarily very immature vertebrate
(rodents, birds, reptiles, amphibians, etc) and invertebrate prey species
(insects primarily). These food items are not as nutrient-rich as their more
adult counterparts.
Feeding schedules for captive snakes vary with the age, species, size, condition
and specific requirements of the individual. Generally speaking, pet snakes are
usually fed once every 1-2 weeks. Juveniles and adults for which a relatively
rapid growth rate is desired can be fed more frequently, providing that
environmental temperatures are warm enough to allow complete and thorough
digestion. Older snakes are usually fed less frequently, often once every 3
weeks. The number of prey animals offered at each feeding is determined by the
same factors discussed above with regard to the frequency of feeding.
Overfeeding must be avoided because of the risk of obesity. The frequent
feedings and allowing a captive snake to consume multiple prey animals at each
feeding encourages rapid growth. It also leads to obesity in older animals. The
relative difficulties in procuring food limits this phenomenon in the wild.
Specific Dietary Recommendations
The variety of snakes kept in captivity is considerable and their food
preferences are quite variable. Following is a list of preferred prey animals
for the snakes most commonly kept in captivity:
Boa constrictors, pythons, rat snakes, gopher or bull snakes:
* Warm-blooded prey is preferred, such as rodents and birds. Juveniles of these
species prefer the very small warm-blooded prey species.
* They may also consume very small lizards and snakes. Some tree boas and
pythons prefer lizards to mammals and birds.
Garter snakes, ribbon snakes, water snakes, etc:
* Fish, frogs, salamanders, toads, earthworms, slugs and carrion are preferred.
*Adapted from Frye, FL: Preferred foods of selected reptiles Ann Sci Seminar
CVMA, 1974
* Many accept dead mice if they are covered with the external mucus of frogs or
fish before they are offered.
Indigo snakes, king snakes, and many racers:
* Warm-blooded (mice, etc) and cold-blooded prey (other snakes, lizards, etc)
are preferred.
* The indigo snake prefers frogs but may eat anything when hungry, including dog
or cat food.
Ring-neck or Irawn snakes and their relatives:
* Salamanders, earthworms, very small snakes and lizards are the foods of
choice.
Racers, vine snakes, coachwhips:
* Lizards are preferred. Racers also eat mice and chicks of ground-nesting
birds.
* The young of these snakes eat large inserts, such as crickets and
grasshoppers.
Shedding (Ecdysis)
Shedding is the process by which snakes periodically discard the outer portion
of their skin. This activity is under hormonal control and associated with
growth. Most snakes shed their skin 8 times per year. The frequency of shedding
depends upon many factors, including environmental temperature, frequency of
feeding, amount fed at each feeding, and activity level Young snakes shed more
frequently than older ones because growth is relatively rapid in the first few
years of life.
Healthy snakes usually have little or no difficulty with shedding and tend to
shed their skins in one entire piece. Exceptions to this include snakes with
injuries to the skin and/or scales resulting in scarring, and snakes housed in
enclosures with sub optimal temperature and/or relative humidity levels.
The stresses associated with shedding can be substantial. Sick snakes, those
suffering from malnutrition, or those whose health has been directly or
indirectly compromised by poor husbandry experience delayed and incomplete
sheds. These snakes tend to shed their skins in pieces. In fact, many of the
pieces remain adhered to the underlying skin and eyes (retained eye caps).
The shedding process is preceded by a period of relative inactivity. This period
usually lasts 1-2 weeks, during which time the eyes begin to exhibit a dull,
bluish-white appearance. During this period, the snake's vision is impaired,
which causes them to be rather unpredictable and sometimes aggressive. The skin
during this period tends to have an overall dull appearance. The underlying new
skin is soft and vulnerable to damage while the outer layers prepare to slough
away.
The eyes again become transparent after 7-15 days and shedding commences. A
snake will make use of any rough objects or surfaces within its enclosure to
help shed the skin. Shedding commences with the skin of the head. Once the snake
has loosened and dislodged the skin surrounding the mouth and overlying the
rostrum (nose), it then passes between rough objects that can trap the loose
skin and hold it as the snake glides out of the "old" skin. Discarded
skin appears dry and tube-like or moist and crumpled in a solitary heap. Many
snakes defecate after a successful shed, or consume large quantities of water.
Reproduction
Snakes produce offspring in 2 basic ways. The first involves development of the
fertilized eggs within the body of the female. When the embryos are fully
developed, the offspring are born, appearing like miniature adults. Boa
constrictors, water and garter snakes, and rattlesnakes are live-bearing species
and are considered ovoviviparous.
The second method involves deposition of oblong, leathery-shelled eggs within
the environment, where the eggs incubate. At the completion of embryonic
development, the eggs hatch, producing miniature adults. Pythons and rat and
milk snakes are egg layers, and are considered oviparous. In either case, the
newborn or newly hatched can fend for themselves and receive no parental
nurturing.
Many snake species readily mate in captivity. One mating may result in up to 3
clutches of eggs or 3 "litters" of live young. This is because sperm
can be stored within the reproductive tract of the female after insemination.
The proper pairing of snakes according to age and sex is essential if
reproduction in captivity is to be successful. Sexing of snakes can be difficult
because males generally resemble females. Male pythons and boa constrictors have
a spur on each side of the vent. Some females have spurs but they are usually
smaller than those of males. These observations can be misleading at times.
Snakes under 18 inches long can usually be sexed by exerting pressure on the
tissues surrounding the vent. Male snakes have paired hemipenes (elongated,
spurred structures used during copulation) that can be extruded with this
maneuver. The widely accepted method for sexing most snakes over 18 inches in
length requires specialized sexing probes. These elongated, blunt-tipped
instruments are gently inserted into the vent and directed toward the tail. The
probe penetrates only a short distance in females and a much longer distance in
males. This procedure should only be attempted by experienced handlers.
Artificial Incubation of Snake Eggs
Artificial incubation of fertile snake eggs is quite easy. A small amount of
water is added to an empty styrofoam picnic chest Then, a thick layer of peat
moss, sphagnum moss, vermiculite, shredded newspaper, or paper towels is added.
The eggs are carefully introduced into this medium. Slightly moistening the
incubation material also helps prevent the eggs' drying out Too much moisture,
however, promotes formation of mold, which will destroy the eggs' contents. The
relative humidity required to incubate snake eggs falls within the range of
75-85%. The covered styrofoam chest is then placed on a heating pad, which is
set on its lowest heat setting. The ideal temperature range for most incubation
lies between 78 and 84 F. The average incubation period for most snakes ranges
between 55 and 60 days.
Problems Requiring Veterinary Attention
Nutritional Deficiencies
As stated earlier, nutritional deficiencies and disease resulting from
malnutrition are relatively rare among captive snakes because of their habit of
consuming whole prey animals. However, exclusive use of whole but immature prey
animals, such as "pinkies" (neonatal mice and rats), juvenile goldfish
and invertebrates, can create nutritional problems. Furthermore, certain snakes
that receive a monotonous diet (no variety of prey items) are also susceptible
to nutritional deficiencies.
The hobbyist must find ways to "supplement" the prey items in these
cases before they are offered to the snake. One method involves injecting the
prey items with vitamin and/or mineral preparations. Another involves implanting
a gelatin capsule filled with a powdered vitamin/mineral/amino acid supplement
into the prey animal. We prefer and recommend Nekton-Rep (Nekton-Products, W.
Germany).
Failure to Voluntarily Feed
Anorexia (lack of appetite) and failure to voluntarily feed are common problems
among captive snakes. Despite the fact that snakes are uniquely suited to
survive prolonged periods without feeding, the hobbyist must make every attempt
to discover the reason's) for the snake's failure to feed. This search must
include the possibility of illness, since anorexia is a universal sign of
disease in snakes.
First consider the circumstances and situations during which snakes normally
will not feed:
* Recent acquisition of a snake.
* Snake in pre-shed condition.
* Latter stages of pregnancy.
* Older, larger snakes feed less often than younger, smaller ones.
* Obese snakes occasionally engage in self-imposed fasts.
* Newborn or newly hatched snakes may not feed until after their first shed
10-14 days after birth.
* Hyperactivity associated with the breeding season or the imposition of
captivity on newly acquired,
* High-strung species.
* Hibernation or attempts to hibernate.
* Illness.
If all of the above have been rejected as causes for anorexia, you must next
consider problems with husbandry. The most common cause for failure of a snake
to voluntarily feed is inadequate environmental temperatures. Tropical snakes
require temperatures between 75 and 85 F for normal activity and optimum
digestive capacity. Subnormal temperatures lead to sluggishness and incomplete
digestion. The food literally spoils inside the snake, producing serious
illness, an early sign of which is vomiting.
The next most common cause for captive snakes' refusing to feed is lack of
adequate visual security. Many snakes require privacy while they feed. A hiding
box or a natural bark or rock retreat may be necessary. Sometimes placing the
reluctant snake in a roomy burlap bag along with a dead or incapacitated prey
item provides the security the snake requires to feed. Strategic placement of
silk artificial plants may also help provide additional visual security.
There may be one particular area of the enclosure in which the snake feels more
secure. The food should be consistently placed there to encourage feeding. It is
important to note that the presence of spectators often discourages nervous
snakes from feeding. The enclosure should be covered in these cases and the
snake's activity discreetly monitored.
It is extremely important for you to understand the natural history of the
anorectic snake being kept in captivity. Reluctance or refusal to feed often is
the result of some omission or mistake in husbandry. Burrowing species require
sand or fine gravel in which to bury themselves. The snake can often be induced
to strike at prey by gently dragging the prey item across the sand.
Tree-dwelling species require branches within their enclosure. Some of these
snakes may be encouraged to feed by hanging the food in the fork of a branch
rather than placing it on the floor of the enclosure. If these specific
husbandry requirements are not provided, certain snakes may not feed.
Offering incorrect prey items nearly always causes a captive snake to refuse to
eat. One should offer the prey items that the snake would feed on in the wild or
a similar more "domestic" food that is more available.
Following is a list of additional suggestions to consider when you are
challenged with a snake that refuses to feed:
* Try feeding at different times of the day. Nocturnal (night-active) species
cannot be expected to feed on prey items placed within the enclosure during the
daytime.
* Try feeding nervous snakes that share an enclosure with other snakes in an
environment separate from them. Often, the movement of other snakes in the same
enclosure induces anorexia in nervous snakes. Moving a snake to a new or
different enclosure may stimulate feeding.
* Reduce handling of especially nervous or newly acquired snakes to encourage
feeding.
* Rubbing the food item over the sensitive areas of the snake's head (the
nostrils and the areas surrounding the mouth) or gently hitting the snake with
the prey may antagonize it to strike at the food.
* Offer live prey to snakes that have been consistently offered dead or
incapacitated prey (with close supervision). Certain aggressive snakes and
snakes with an impaired sense of smell may require live prey to successfully
feed.
* For snakes that ordinarily eat live prey, try feeding dead or incapacitated
live prey items. Often, the erratic motions of a rodent running around an
enclosure can cause a snake to refuse to feed.
* Try feeding a smaller prey item
